Brewing begins with selecting the ingredients.
If it were makgeolli, rice would be the ingredient that should be considered first.
Traditional brewing literature merely reiterates the principle of “good rice, good water, and good koji,” but rarely explains how differences between varieties function during fermentation.
This article summarizes the influence of rice on Makgeolli brewing, and examines Japan's brewing rice system and Chinese Huangjiu (yellow wineWe will also examine the method of selecting raw materials, and see if this can be directly applied to makgeolli.
index
Four brewing factors contained in a single grain of rice
A single grain of white rice is largely composed of starch, protein, fat, and minerals. Based on white rice, starch is 75–801 TP3T, protein is 6–81 TP3T, and the remainder is fat and ash.
These ingredients play different roles in the fermentation process.
| ingredient | role | Content Direction |
|---|---|---|
| starch | Saccharification substrate → Ethanol raw material | The higher, the better. |
| protein | Nitrogen source supply + off-flavors/fusel precursors | Optimal range exists |
| province | Fermentation inhibition, cause of off-flavor | The lower, the better. |
| Minerals (K, Mg) | Promotes the growth of Aspergillus and yeast | It is beneficial when used in appropriate amounts. |
The National Institute of Food Science and Technology under the Rural Development Administration suggests that the basic requirements for rice for brewing are “high starch content, low protein and fat, and a hard outer shell that is soft inside.”.
Two Key Pillars to Look For When Choosing Rice
There are two variables that have the most direct impact on brewing results when selecting rice: starch structure (amylose-to-amylopectin ratio) and protein content. These two axes simultaneously determine the flavor profile and fermentation risk of makgeolli.
First Axis: Starch Structure and Saccharification Design
Rice starch consists of amylose with a linear structure and amylopectin with a branched structure. Regular non-glutinous rice contains approximately 18–221 TP3T of amylose and approximately 78–821 TP3T of amylopectin, while glutinous rice contains nearly 1001 TP3T of amylopectin.
The phenomenon in which starch swells and its crystal structure unravels upon encountering water and heat. luxuriousThis process must occur sufficiently for the yeast enzyme to access the starch chain and begin saccharification. In the state of raw starch that is not fully gelatinized, the enzyme cannot penetrate the substrate.
The higher the amylose content, the more The temperature rises as the luxury begins.. The linear chains of amylose form dense crystalline regions through hydrogen bonding, requiring higher energy. While the gelatinization onset temperature of ordinary Japonica rice is in the range of 58–65°C, the high-amylose varieties of the Goami series reach up to 74–78°C.
Amylose also reduces enzyme accessibility. The tightly branched structure of amylopectin allows amylase to target multiple sites simultaneously, whereas linear amylose can only be accessed sequentially at the ends of the chain.
In a study by the Korea Food Research Institute, when the Goami series was used in makgeolli, the fermentation suitability was evaluated as low due to the overlap of these two factors.
On the other hand, rice rich in amylopectin gelatinizes well at low temperatures and has high enzymatic accessibility. However, during the saccharification process, the branched links (α-1,6 bonds) of amylopectin cannot be broken by ordinary amylase, leaving non-fermentable limit dextrin. This is the source of residual sugar, sweetness, and body, while also lowering the alcohol yield.
This mechanism explains why non-glutinous rice (optimal amylose) shows a higher alcohol yield (16.51 TP3T vs. 14.01 TP3T) than glutinous rice. Once sufficient gelatinization is achieved, amylose is converted more completely into fermentable sugars as there are no branching restrictions.
Second Axis: Protein Content and Flavor Risk
Protein is a double-edged sword. Amino acids broken down by yeast protease serve as a nitrogen source for yeast, while, Ehrlich pathwayIt can be converted into fusel alcohols (isoamyl alcohol and isobutanol) through this.
The correlation coefficient (R²) between the initial amino acid concentration and the final fusel alcohol content of makgeolli mash ranges from 0.77 to 0.94 (Pollock et al., PubMed, 2014). This means that using high-protein rice structurally increases the risk of fusel formation.
There is also a result showing that the makgeolli sample with the highest protein content received the lowest overall preference in sensory evaluation (Pollock et al., PMC, 2023). Amino acids are ingredients for umami, but at the same time, they become toxic when in excess.
Conversely, if protein levels are extremely low, fermentation may be delayed due to a lack of nitrogen sources for the yeast. A limitation is that this balance point has not yet been clearly presented in numerical terms for Makgeolli.
If the use of high-protein rice is unavoidable, slowing down the Ehrlich pathway through low-temperature fermentation (maintaining 15–17°C) is a realistic complementary strategy.
The difference between glutinous rice and non-glutinous rice
When seeing the terms "glutinous rice" or "non-glutinous rice" in makgeolli recipes, people often get confused as to whether they are variety names or separate classifications. To be precise, glutinous rice and non-glutinous rice are Classification of genotypes, not varietiesall.
Wx gene and four combinations
The difference between glutinous rice and non-glutinous rice is Waxy(Wx) gene It comes from one source. If the amylose synthase enzyme does not function properly due to a mutation in the Wx gene, starch becomes composed solely of amylopectin. This is glutinous rice.
This gene variation can appear independently in either Japonica or Indica lineages. In other words, all four of the following combinations exist.
| mixture | amylose | Characteristics Summary | example |
|---|---|---|---|
| Japonica non-glutinous rice | 18~22% | Luxury, easy to use, moderate residual sugar, Makgeolli basic | Sindongjin, Junam, Samgwang |
| Japonica glutinous rice | ~0~4% | Rich in residual sugar, ester fruit flavor predominates | Dongjinchal, Boramchal |
| Indica non-glutinous rice | 24~30% | High amylose, difficult gelatinization, high protein | Thai jasmine, imported long-grain rice |
| Indica glutinous rice | ~0~3% | Amylopectin dominance, very high viscosity | Thai glutinous rice (Khao Niao) |
Japonica vs. Indica
Most rice grown in Korea is of the Japonica variety, but a significant portion of imported rice is of the Indica variety.
Although it is rare to brew makgeolli using Indica rice varieties, it is worth examining the advantages and limitations of Indica in makgeolli brewing.
| characteristic | Japonica | Indica |
|---|---|---|
| Amylose content | 18~22% | 24~30% |
| Protein content | Low (5.5~7%) | High (7~9%) |
| Starch Score | 77~79% | 82~86% |
| Luxury and ease | height | lowness |
| price | Relatively high | lowness |
The only brewing advantage Indica has is Starch value (82~86%)It means that it is higher than Japonica. Theoretically, there are more glycated substrates.
However, this advantage is realized only when conditions are met. To overcome the high amylose content and gelatinization onset temperature of Indica, adjustments to steaming conditions (high temperature and long duration) and saccharification assistance are required. Without these adjustments, using Indica leaves only two disadvantages: the risk of fusels caused by high protein and incomplete saccharification.
In a study by the Korea Food Research Institute, the Indica Anda variety had a protein content of 7.51 TP3 T, which is approximately 1.5 times that of Japonica varieties (Drechan, Boramchan).Korean Journal of Food Science and Technology, (, 2013). The conclusion is that it is difficult to expect brewing advantages other than price competitiveness.
Non-glutinous rice or glutinous rice, which is better to choose?
Generally, when brewing alcohol, there is a saying that “if you want sweetness, use glutinous rice.” This is because the amylopectin in glutinous rice leaves a large amount of limit dextrin, which strengthens the residual sugar and body.
However, when brewing, the choice of glutinous rice or non-glutinous rice can determine not only the direction of the flavor but also the direction of the aroma.
2026 MDPI Foods The study shows that glutinous rice makgeolli is not merely sweet. Makgeolli brewed with Gureumchal glutinous rice Ethyl ester-based fruit scent profileThis was dominant. It is a clean, sweet fruit scent like ethyl butyrate (peach, pineapple) or ethyl caprylate (pear, apple) (Lee et al., Foods, 2026).
On the other hand, non-glutinous rice makgeolli was distinguished by acetate esters (banana scent of isoamyl acetate, nail polish nuance in excess) and fusel series metabolism (lacquer/solvent scent of isoamyl alcohol, bitter alcohol smell of isobutanol).
One point to note regarding glutinous rice is that amylopectin, the source of its sweetness, and protein, the source of fusel risk, originate from the same rice. Glutinous rice tends to have a relatively higher protein content than non-glutinous rice, and consequently, it produces more amino acids. It is not that sweetness creates fusels; rather, the advantages and risks of glutinous rice arise simultaneously from the same raw material.
To suppress fusels while preserving the fruity aroma and body of glutinous rice, Low-temperature fermentation management is essentialall.
How do neighboring countries select rice?
Japan and China have established their own unique rice selection standards over the course of hundreds of years. Examining where these standards overlap and diverge from those of Makgeolli reveals what standards Korean traditional alcoholic beverages should establish in the future.
Japanese Sake-Type Rice: Designed for Koji Compatibility and Clean Fermentation
Japan has over 120 types Good luck with alcohol(Shujo Hojeokmi) is officially registered with the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries. There are five selection criteria. These criteria were designed under the goal of “maximizing the saccharification efficiency of koji and minimizing off-flavors.”.
first opposition(large grain). It is a large grain weighing 26g or more per 1,000 grains. Larger grains have a lower chance of breaking during the milling process and can structurally contain a core and a sufficient starch layer.
Second Simbaek (heart white). It is a translucent, low-density starch layer in the center of the rice grain. The starch particles are loosely arranged, allowing koji hyphae to easily penetrate and resulting in a high absorption rate. The occurrence rate of the core white in Yamada Nishiki reaches approximately 701 TP3 T.
The third and fourth are Low protein, low fatProtein is a precursor to off-flavors and fusel alcohols, and fat inhibits fermentation. As sake aims for a clean Ginjo-style aroma, these two components are thoroughly reduced.
Fifth Soft lead white (軟質). The grains are soft, resulting in high water absorption and easy koji production. Hard rice remains hard inside even after soaking, making it difficult for mycelial penetration.
The flavor objective of these standards is clear. After physically removing proteins and fats through milling, the koji saccharification efficiency is maximized through the white core. A clean and fruity Ginjo-style aromaIt is to make.
Caution is required when applying the brewing standards for rice directly to makgeolli. Sake is based on the premise of physically removing proteins with a polishing ratio of 40–701 TP3T. Since makgeolli has a lower polishing ratio and koji microorganisms are responsible for protein decomposition, separate verification is required to determine whether the sake standards work in the same way for makgeolli.
Chinese Huangjiu: Designing the richness and terroir derived from rice.
Shaoxing, China yellow wine(Huangjiu) uses amylopectin from glutinous rice as its core ingredient. The Shaoxing Huangjiu National Standard (GB/T 17946-2008) is Custody (鑒湖) waterIt specifies glutinous rice and wheat flour as ingredients.
The water of Gamho is from Shaoxing Kuaijishan (快稽山It is natural freshwater flowing from the lake. Its mineral balance is suitable for fermentation, and its moderate hardness does not inhibit yeast activity. A local expression stating, “Glutinous rice is the flesh of Hwangju, and the water of Gamho is the blood of Hwangju,” clearly demonstrates the importance of these two ingredients.
The reason for insisting on glutinous rice is clear. Frontiers NutritionIn a 2023 study, glutinous rice yellow wine was dominated by ethyl butyrate (peach and pineapple) and ethyl caprylate (apple and pear) series esters and had a weak bitter taste.PMC10324613This ester profile is the decisive reason why Hwangju chooses glutinous rice.
On the other hand, when aiming for a 'mild flavor,' the focus shifts to Japonica non-glutinous rice. In non-glutinous rice Hwangju, spicy and vanilla aromas in the vanillin family are prominent. For Hwangju, the selection of raw materials itself Declaration of flavor directionIt is used as.
[Image insertion location: Photo of Shaoxing Huangjiu aging jars]
Korean Brewing Suitability Guide by Variety
In 2010, the Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Rural Affairs commissioned the Korean Food Research Institute's Traditional Alcohol Research Center to study the top 20 domestic rice varieties Makgeolli brewing I investigated the aptitude.
The items investigated were starch content, amylose, protein, fat, thousand-grain weight, gelatinization onset temperature, alcohol content, composition ratio relative to raw materials, and sensory evaluation (appearance, aroma, taste, texture, and overall preference). (Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Rural Affairs & Korea Food Research Institute Our Alcohol Research Center, 2010; Food Journal foodnews, 2011).
Actual measurements of component analysis by domestic rice variety
Below are the actual measured values of the four major components by variety in the report.
The higher the starch content and the lower the protein and fat content, the more favorable it is for brewing.
| varieties | Starch content (%) | Amylose (%) | Protein (%) | Fat (%) |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nampyeong | 72.2 | 17.6 | 7.00 | 0.22 |
| Dongjin No. 1 | 72.6 | 18.0 | 6.90 | 0.30 |
| Dongjin No. 2 | 71.5 | 19.6 | 6.57 | 0.37 |
| Dongjincha | 72.2 | 11.8 | 7.02 | 0.47 |
| Shin Dong-jin ★ | 77.6 | 17.2 | 5.04 | 0.18 |
| Samgwang | 72.6 | 18.2 | 6.29 | 0.73 |
| Samdeok | 71.4 | 18.6 | 5.38 | 0.34 |
| Estimation | 73.3 | 16.8 | 6.08 | 0.30 |
| New Year's Day | 73.9 | 19.0 | 5.80 | 0.18 |
| Sura | 73.3 | 18.7 | 5.67 | 0.38 |
| Five generations | 75.0 | 19.2 | 6.67 | 0.31 |
| Onnuri | 76.0 | 17.8 | 5.74 | 0.31 |
| Ungwang | 72.9 | 17.6 | 6.72 | 0.31 |
| Ilmi | 73.7 | 18.0 | 5.86 | 0.27 |
| article par excellence | 74.7 | 18.9 | 5.46 | 0.66 |
| Junam ★ | 72.3 | 19.5 | 5.75 | 0.26 |
| High quality | 74.2 | 17.2 | 5.22 | 0.31 |
| reputation | 70.6 | 18.9 | 6.45 | 0.38 |
| Hwayoung | 73.6 | 17.8 | 6.23 | 0.47 |
| Seolgang | 70.0 | 12.3 | 5.79 | 0.34 |
★ Varieties rated as excellent in 3 or more categories. Protein content varies year by year even within the same variety depending on cultivation methods (amount of nitrogen fertilizer input). According to grain labeling standards, protein grades are Su (6.01 TP3T or less) / U (6.1–7.01 TP3T) / Mi (7.11 TP3T or more), and for Makgeolli brewing Number (6.0% or less) gradeThis is advantageous.
Shin Dong-jinThe numbers clearly show why it ranks first overall. With a starch content of 77.61 TP3T (highest among 20 varieties), protein of 5.041 TP3T (lowest), and fat of 0.181 TP3T (lowest), it ranks first simultaneously in the three key categories favorable for brewing. Sindongjin is the only variety where these three values overlap.
JunamIts strengths are amylose 19.51 TP3T (2nd place) and low fat (0.261 TP3T). Although the starch content is 72.31 TP3T, which is average, the high amylose content works favorably for alcohol yield.
There is one point worth noting. SamgwangWith a protein content of 6.291 TP3T and a starch value of 72.61 TP3T, it falls within the average range, but with a fat content of 0.731 TP3T, among 20 varieties By far the bestC. Although it is theoretically the variety with the highest risk of fermentation inhibition, it ranked highly in sensory evaluations. This suggests that the impact of fat on the final flavor during the makgeolli production process may differ from simple theoretical predictions, indicating the need for further research.
SeolgangThe amylose content is 12.31 TP3T, which is almost at the level of semi-glutinous rice. Although the starch value (70.01 TP3T) and amylose are low, the fact that it is included in the top group for alcohol yield is interpreted as being due to the amylopectin structure, which is close to glutinous, increasing gelatinization efficiency and raising the sensory score with residual sugar and body.
Ranking by Brewing Performance (2010 Survey by Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Rural Affairs and Korea Food Research Institute)
| Evaluation items | Superior breed |
|---|---|
| Excellent overall ingredients (3 or more items) | Sindongjin, Junam |
| Excellent alcohol content | Dongjin No. 2, Sura, Sindongjin, Ungwang, Ilpum, Junam, Hwayeong, Seolgang |
| Excellent composition ratio relative to raw materials | Dongjin 2, Onnuri, Ilmi, Junam, Chucheong, Hopyeong |
| Excellent sensory evaluation by experts and consumers | Samgwang, Odae, Onnuri, Hwayoung |
How to Select Rice Varieties Based on Brewing Purpose
If you prioritize alcohol yield and production efficiency Sindongjin is the overwhelming number one. The simultaneous highest (or lowest) record in the three categories of starch, protein, and fat is a combination that no other variety possesses. Junam has high amylose, resulting in good alcohol yield and low fat content.
If you prioritize flavor balance Samgwang, Odae, Onnuri, and Hwayoung rank in the top tier of sensory evaluation. However, it is advisable to be aware of Samgwang's high fat content (0.731 TP3T) before using it. Odae has a starch value of 75.01 TP3T and an amylose value of 19.21 TP3T, showing a good balance of yield and flavor.
If you want to enhance sweetness and body Dongjinchal (amylose 11.81 TP3T) or Seolgang (12.31 TP3T) can be considered as main or blending ingredients. However, since Dongjinchal has the highest protein content among glutinous rice varieties at 7.021 TP3T, fusel management is essential.
Research Gaps and Currents
Now, 15 years after this survey, new varieties such as Chamdeurim, Kawaji No. 1, Yeonghojinmi, and Haedeul have been distributed to farms, but there is almost no research on their suitability for brewing makgeolli.
In addition, data on thousand-grain weight and gelatinization onset temperature were measured in the 2010 survey, but there are limitations to field application due to the lack of a public table that integrates data on starch, protein, and fat.
[Image insertion location: Korean Rice Variety Diversity — Comparison of Rice Ears of Various Varieties]
Things Korean Makgeolli Brewing Has Yet Not Answered
Looking at the points summarized in this article, structural gaps that the Korean traditional liquor industry has yet to resolve are visible.
Absence of protein standards. Although it has been proven in research papers that the protein content of rice is directly linked to the production of fusel alcohol, it is rare for protein content to be explicitly included in the rice purchasing standards of breweries.
Utilizing grain labeling grades (Superior, Excellent, and Fair) as brewing standards can be a realistic starting point.
Oversimplification of the glutinous rice/non-glutinous rice dichotomy. “The common belief that ”if you want sweetness, use glutinous rice” hides the protein risks associated with glutinous rice and the need to manage fermentation temperature.
Absence of Korean-style brewing suitability standards. Unlike Japan's registration system for brewing rice or the origin standards for Shaoxing Huangjiu, Korean traditional liquor lacks unique rice selection criteria that reflect the nuruk fermentation system and the characteristics of parallel double fermentation. These standards must neither imitate sake nor be left blank.
So, which rice should I choose?
The first thing to decide before brewing makgeolli is not the variety of rice. Target flavor directionOnce the direction is set, the selection of rice naturally follows.
| target | Key criteria | Selection direction | Points to note |
|---|---|---|---|
| Maximizing alcohol yield | Japonica non-glutinous rice, high in starch and low in protein | Sindongjin, Junam, Dongjin No. 2 | Check protein grade 'number (6.0% or less)' |
| Flavor balance and sensory perfection | Moderate amylose + low protein | Samgwang, Odae, Hwayeong | Protein content varies by cultivation region and year |
| Sweetness and body enhancement | High-amylopectin glutinous rice blend | Dongjinchal 10~30% Blending | Low-temperature fermentation is essential (fusel inhibition) |
| Fruit-centered aroma | Glutinous rice + Low temperature + Low protein | Japonica glutinous rice + fermentation at 15–17°C | Considering the decrease in alcohol yield |
| Price efficiency (utilization of imported rice) | Process adjustments taking Indica risk into account | Stricter capital increase conditions + Saccharification assistance mandatory | High protein → Structural fusel risk |
There are two most practical starting points. If you are brewing makgeolli for the first time Sindongjin or JunamHow about establishing a standard based on this? Once the flavor direction becomes clearer, let's look at the protein grade and amylose range to narrow down the options to varieties that meet the goal.
